America and Child Labor essays

America and Child Labor essays The industrial revolution was one of the hardest times in American history. With these hard times brought pollution, poverty, and prejudice. Along with these corruptions brought one of the darkest sides of the industrial revolution and Americas past, child labor. The industrial revolution brought many social evils. One of possibly the most worse of the social issues happens to be the unfair treatment of children in labor. Child Labor was a scandal of the nineteenth century. Child Labor is the employment of children working under the age of physical maturity (Hine, index). Children would start work in mills, coal mines, and factories as young as 5 years old, to 18 years of age. An average child would work 18 hour days. Work days typically ran from dawn to sunset, and winter usually brought longer hours, from 68 to 72 hours per week. The average pay for a child in labor was around $ 3.25 a week (Green, p 13). After the Civil War, the industrial revolution took off. Businesses soared. Along with new businesses, labor was needed. As the number of factories started to grow in the United States, so did the number of people required to tend them. Immigrants came to the U.S. to make a better living for themselves and their families. Immigrants came to America with little to no money to survive. In order to avoid starvation, the families children were often forced into child labor. Because of laissez faire, which means that government would not get involved with business and the economy, businesses were aloud to pay extremely low wages and to allow children to work in horrible, hazardous working conditions. This is why children were often forced into labor, to help their families bring in more money. Surprisingly, with the amount of immigrants coming to America, there were labor shortages. Children were often taken from workhouses by employers. These children were transported in crowds from hu ndreds of miles away, to work all ...

Toumai - Type site of Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Toumai - Type site of Sahelanthropus tchadensis Toumaà ¯ is the name of a late Miocene hominoid who lived in what is today the Djurab desert of Chad some seven million years ago (mya). The fossil currently classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis is represented by a nearly complete, amazingly well-preserved cranium, collected from the Toros-Menalla locality of Chad by the Mission Palà ©oanthropologique Franco-Tchadienne (MPFT) team led by Michel Brunet. Its status as an ancient hominid ancestor is somewhat in debate; but Toumaà ¯s significance as the oldest and best preserved of any Miocene age ape is undeniable. Location and Features The Toros-Menalla fossil region is located in the Chad basin, a region that has fluctuated from semi-arid to wet conditions over and over again. The fossil-bearing outcrops are in the center of the northern sub-basin and consist of terrigenous sands and sandstones interbedded with argillaceous pebbles and diatomites. Toros-Menalla is some 150 kilometers (about 90 miles) east of the Koro-Toro locality where Australopithecus bahrelghazali was discovered by the MPFT team. Toumaà ¯s skull is small, with features suggesting it had an upright stance and used bipedal locomotion. Its age at death was approximately 11 years old, if comparisons to wear on the teeth of modern chimpanzees are valid: 11 years is an adult chimpanzee and it is assumed that so was Toumaà ¯. Toumaà ¯ has been dated to approximately 7 million years of age using the Beryllium isotope 10Be/9BE ratio, developed for the region and also used on the Koro-Toro fossil beds. Other examples of S. tchandensis were recovered from Toros-Menalla localities TM247 and TM292, but were limited to two lower jaws, the crown of a right premolar (p3), and one partial mandible fragment. All hominoid fossil materials were recovered from an anthracotheriid unitso called because it also contained a large anthracotheriid, Libycosaurus petrochii, an ancient hippopotamus-like creature. Toumaà ¯s Cranium The complete cranium recovered from Toumaà ¯ had suffered fracturing, displacement and plastic deformation over the past millennia, and in 2005, researchers Zollikofer et al. published a detailed virtual reconstruction of the skull. This reconstruction illustrated in the photo above used high-resolution computed tomography to create a digital representation of the pieces, and the digital pieces were cleaned of adhering matrix and reconstructed. The cranial volume of the reconstructed skull is between 360-370 milliliters (12-12.5 fluid ounces), similar to modern chimpanzees, and the smallest known for an adult hominid. The skull has a nuchal crest that is within the range of Australopithecus and Homo, but not chimpanzees. The skulls shape and line suggests Toumaà ¯ stood upright, but without additional postcranial artifacts, thats a hypothesis waiting to be tested. Faunal Assemblage Vertebrate fauna from TM266 include 10 taxa of freshwater fish, turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles, all representatives of ancient Lake Chad. Carnivores include three species of extinct hyenas and a saber toothed cat (Machairodus cf. M giganteus). Primates other than S. tchadensis are represented only by a single maxilla belonging to a colobine monkey. Rodents include mouse and squirrel; extinct forms of aardvarks, horses, pigs, cows, hippos and elephants were found in the same locality. Based on the collection of animals, the TM266 locality is likely to be Upper Miocene in age, between 6 and 7 million years ago. Clearly aquatic environments were available; some of the fish are from deep and well-oxygenated habitats, and other fish are from swampy, well-vegetated and turbid waters. Together with the mammals and vertebrates, that collection implies that the Toros-Menalla region included a large lake bordered by a gallery forest. This type of environment is typical for the most ancient of hominoids, such as Ororrin and Ardipithecus; in contrast, Australopithecus lived in a wider range of environments including everything from savannah to forested woodlands. Sources Brunet M, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Lieberman DE, Likius A, Mackaye HT, Ponce de Leà ³n MS, Zollikofer CPE, and Vignaud P. 2005. New material of the earliest hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad. Nature 434:752-755.Brunet M. 2010. Short note: The track of a new cradle of mankind in Sahelo-Saharan Africa (Chad, Libya, Egypt, Cameroon). Journal of African Earth Sciences 58(4):680-683.Emonet E-G, Andossa L, Taà ¯sso Mackaye H, and Brunet M. 2014. Subocclusal dental morphology of sahelanthropus tchadensis and the evolution of teeth in hominins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153(1):116-123.Lebatard A-E, Bourlà ¨s DL, Duringer P, Jolivet M, Braucher R, Carcaillet J, Schuster M, Arnaud N, Monià © P, Lihoreau F et al. 2008. Cosmogenic nuclide dating of Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Australopithecus bahrelghazali: Mio-Pliocene hominids from Chad. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(9):3226-3231.Vignaud P, Duringer P, Mackaye HT, Likius A, Blondel C, Boisserie J-R, de Bonis L, Eisenmann V, Etienne M-E, Geraads D et al. 2002. Geology and palaeontology of the Upper Miocene Toros-Menalla hominid locality, Chad. Nature 418:152-155. Wolpoff MH, Hawks J, Senut B, Pickford M, and Ahern JCM. 2006. An ape or the ape: is the Toumaà ¯ cranium TM 266 a hominid? PaleoAnthropology 2006:36-50.Zollikofer CPE, Ponce de Leà ³n MS, Lieberman DE, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Likius A, Mackaye HT, Vignaud P, and Brunet M. 2005. Virtual cranial reconstruction of Sahelanthropos tchadensis. Nature 434:755-759.